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The number of bachelor's degrees granted to black males fell by about 10% between 1976/7 and 1986/7. The number of doctoral degrees fell by almost 47% between 1978 and 1988. But at the same time the number of bachelor's degrees granted to black women increased by about 1.7% and the number of doctoral degrees granted to black women increased by about 10%. What information would you need to determine the role of race and affirmative action in these changes? (For example, it might help to know what happened to white men and women during the same period.)

Questions arise with respect to any of the problems to which Fred points. There are many factors that influence black unemployment levels, occupational structure, school attendance, and single parenthood. Does affirmative action have a role in any of these? If so, how much or how little? What comparisons can help us to answer these questions?